Seerah (Biography of Prophet Muhammad)

Overview

Level 1 · Seerah — The Prophet’s Biography ﷺ. Condensed revision notes across five units:

• Unit 1 — The importance of the Seerah
• Unit 2 — Lineage, birth & upbringing
• Unit 3 — His wives & children
• Unit 4 — The Makkan period (the mission begins → the Hijrah)
• Unit 5 — The Madinan period (the campaigns → Farewell Hajj → his passing ﷺ)

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Unit 1 — The Importance of the Seerah

The importance of the Seerah

The Seerah of the Prophet ﷺ is a rich source of guidance. Its importance may be summed up in several points:

1. It is the standard by which deeds are measured — whatever accords with his guidance and practice is acceptable and in accordance with Islamic teachings; whatever does not is rejected.
2. It gives a vivid image of the best example for humanity to follow. Hence Allah instructed us to take him as an example — “There has certainly been for you in the Messenger of Allah an excellent pattern, for anyone whose hope is in Allah and the Last Day and who remembers Allah often” (al-Ahzab 33:21).

Qur’an

﴿لَّقَدْ كَانَ لَكُمْ فِي رَسُولِ اللَّهِ أُسْوَةٌ حَسَنَةٌ لِّمَن كَانَ يَرْجُو اللَّهَ وَالْيَوْمَ الْآخِرَ وَذَكَرَ اللَّهَ كَثِيرًا﴾ — الأحزاب ٢١

3. It helps us understand and act upon the Book of Allah — his character was the Qur’an, and his entire life was based on following it.
4. It increases our love for the Prophet ﷺ by teaching us the great aspects of his life and character. He ﷺ said: «None of you truly believes until I am dearer to him than his father, his son and all people» (agreed upon).

Hadith

«لا يُؤمِنُ أحدُكم حتى أكونَ أحبَّ إليه من والدِه وولدِه والناسِ أجمعينَ» (أنس؛ متفق عليه)

5. The characteristics (shama’il) and biography (seerah) highlight the best path for the Muslim seeking goodness and an honourable life in this world and the Hereafter.
6. It reveals the great generation of the Sahabah — their striving alongside the Messenger ﷺ, their willingness to sacrifice their lives, children and wealth for him, and their keenness to emulate him in every word and deed.
7. It helps us understand all aspects of religion — creed (aqeedah), worship and fiqh — because his life was an application of the religious teachings in their entirety.

A warning about some books

Some books are sought for the Prophet’s biography ﷺ despite the danger and serious errors they contain, including: books of literature and poetry collections such as al-Aghani by Abu’l-Faraj al-Asbahani, and al-Iqd al-Fareed by Ibn Abd Rabbihi al-Andalusi. These contain false reports and details about the Prophet ﷺ and his Companions, along with fabrications and distortions of history. They should not be a source for learning history or biography, especially anything to do with the Prophet ﷺ, the history of Islam and the stories of the Sahabah.

Unit 2 — Prophet Muhammad ﷺ: His Lineage, Birth and Upbringing

His lineage

His full name is Muhammad ibn Abdullah ibn Abd al-Muttalib ibn Hashim ibn Abd Manaf ibn Qusay ibn Kilab ibn Murrah ibn Ka’b ibn Lu’ay ibn Ghalib ibn Fihr ibn Malik ibn an-Nadr ibn Kinanah ibn Khuzaymah ibn Mudrikah ibn Ilyas ibn Mudar ibn Nizar ibn Ma’add ibn Adnan (al-Bukhari). Adnan was descended from Ismail ibn Ibrahim. Thus the Messenger of Allah ﷺ was the best, descended from the best.

• Benefit — the chosen lineage. Wathilah ibn al-Asqa: the Messenger of Allah ﷺ said: «Indeed Allah chose Kinanah from the descendants of Ismail, and He chose Quraysh from Kinanah, and He chose from Quraysh Banu Hashim, and He chose me from Banu Hashim» (Muslim).

Hadith

«إنَّ اللهَ اصطفى كِنانةَ من ولدِ إسماعيلَ، واصطفى قُريشًا من كِنانةَ، واصطفى من قُريشٍ بني هاشمٍ، واصطفاني من بني هاشمٍ» (واثلة بن الأسقع؛ مسلم)

• His father was Abdullah ibn Abd al-Muttalib, the most handsome young man of Quraysh; he died before the Prophet ﷺ was born.
• His mother was Aminah bint Wahb; her father was the most prominent of Banu Zuhrah in honour and status.
• His grandfather was Abd al-Muttalib ibn Hashim, a leader of Quraysh, a man of noble characteristics, famous for digging the well of Zamzam.

His birth and suckling

He ﷺ was born in Makkah in the Year of the Elephant, on a Monday in the month of Rabi’ al-Awwal. When asked about fasting Monday, he ﷺ said: «That is a day on which I was born, and a day on which I was sent — or revelation came down to me» (Abu Qatadah; Muslim).

Hadith

«ذاكَ يومٌ وُلِدْتُ فيه، ويومٌ بُعِثْتُ — أو أُنزِلَ عليَّ — فيه» (أبو قتادة؛ مسلم)

He was suckled first by Thuwaybah, then by Halimah as-Sa’diyyah of Banu Sa’d, whose family was blessed on his account.

The opening of the chest (shaqq as-sadr) — this happened to him ﷺ twice: first in the desert of Banu Sa’d, with his wetnurse Halimah, when he was four; and second on the night of the Isra. Muslim narrated (Anas ibn Malik) that Jibreel came to him while he was playing with other children, took hold of him, opened his chest, took out his heart, removed a clot of blood from it and said: “This is the Shaytan’s share of you.” He washed it in a golden bowl of Zamzam water, then closed the heart and put it back. Anas said: “I used to see the marks of that stitching on his chest.”

His upbringing as an orphan

• His father died before he was born (when his mother was two — or seven — months pregnant).
• His mother died at al-Abwa (between Makkah and Madinah) when he was about four (or six), returning from visiting his maternal uncles of Banu Adiy ibn an-Najjar.
• His grandfather Abd al-Muttalib became his guardian, then died when he was eight; his uncle Abu Talib then took charge of him, supporting, protecting and caring for him for a long time.

The meeting with Bahira the monk. When the Messenger ﷺ was twelve, Abu Talib took him on a trade journey to Syria. At Busra, the monk Bahira came out to the caravan — something he had never done before — took the Prophet’s hand, and said: “This is the leader of the worlds; this is the Messenger of the Lord of the Worlds; Allah will send him as a mercy to the worlds.” Asked how he knew, he said he had seen the trees and stones prostrate to him, and recognised the seal of prophethood below his shoulder blades, and found mention of him in their books. He advised Abu Talib to take him back for fear of the Romans and Jews.

The alliance of the virtuous (Hilf al-Fudul)

Formed in Dhu’l-Qadah (a sacred month) in the house of Abdullah ibn Jad’an, when clans of Quraysh — Banu Hashim, Banu’l-Muttalib, Asad ibn Abd al-Uzza, Zuhrah ibn Kilab and Taym ibn Murrah — pledged to stand with any wronged person until his rights were restored. The Messenger ﷺ was present.

• Benefit. Talha ibn Abdullah ibn Awf: the Messenger of Allah ﷺ said: «I witnessed in the house of Abdullah ibn Jad’an a pact I would not exchange for red camels; and if I were called to it in Islam, I would respond» (al-Bayhaqi; hasan per al-Albani).

Hadith

«لقد شَهِدْتُ في دارِ عبدِ اللهِ بنِ جُدْعانَ حِلْفًا ما أُحِبُّ أنَّ لي به حُمْرَ النَّعَمِ، ولو أُدْعى به في الإسلامِ لأجَبْتُ» (البيهقي؛ حسّنه الألباني)

Allah protected him from childhood until his mission

He ﷺ was raised with the noblest characteristics. Allah protected him from anything contrary to noble character — he never drank alcohol, ate what was slaughtered on stone altars, or attended any idolatrous festival; from early childhood he had an aversion to what was falsely worshipped, and could not bear to hear an oath by al-Lat and al-Uzza. Known among his people as al-Ameen (the trustworthy) and as-Sadiq (the truthful).

The rebuilding of the Ka’bah

When the Ka’bah was rebuilt (he was about 35), the clans disputed over who would place the Black Stone. He resolved it by placing the stone on a cloak for all the chiefs to lift together, then set it in place himself — averting bloodshed through wisdom. Jabir ibn Abdillah narrated that when he and al-Abbas were moving stones, al-Abbas told him to put his lower garment (izar) on his shoulders against the stones; he fell to the ground, his eyes rolled up, and when he came round he said: «My izar, my izar!» — then tied it firmly (al-Bukhari & Muslim). He ﷺ was never seen in a state of undress after that.

Unit 3 — His Wives and Children

Marriage to Khadijah bint Khuwaylid — his first wife

When the Prophet ﷺ reached the age of twenty-five, he traded with the wealth of Khadijah to Syria, accompanied by her slave Maysarah. When he returned with unusual profit and Maysarah told her of his noble character, Khadijah — through her friend Nafeesah bint Munabbih — proposed, and he married her. She was then the best of her people in lineage, wealth and wisdom. She was the first woman he ﷺ married, and he did not marry any other woman during her lifetime. She bore him all his children except Ibrahim.

His wives after Khadijah (the Mothers of the Believers)

Sawdah bint Zam’ah; Aisha bint Abi Bakr as-Siddeeq; Hafsah bint Umar; Zaynab bint Khuzaymah; Umm Salamah Hind bint Abi Umayyah al-Makhzumiyyah; Umm Habibah Ramlah bint Abi Sufyan; Juwayriyah bint al-Harith (her name was Barrah; the Messenger ﷺ renamed her Juwayriyah); Safiyyah bint Huyayy ibn Akhtab; Maymunah bint al-Harith al-Hilaliyyah; and Zaynab bint Jahsh. (Ibrahim was borne by Mariyah al-Qibtiyyah, sent to him by the Muqawqis of Egypt.)

His children

• Sons: al-Qasim (from whom he took his kunyah Abu’l-Qasim; born before prophethood, died at age two); Abdullah (also called at-Tayyib and at-Tahir, born after prophethood); and Ibrahim (born in Madinah in 8 AH, the last of his children).
• Daughters: Zaynab (the eldest), Ruqayyah, Umm Kulthum, and Fatimah.
• They all died during his ﷺ lifetime except Fatimah, who died after him.

Unit 4 — The Prophet’s Mission Begins (The Makkan Period)

The two periods, and Allah’s protection before the mission

After Allah honoured him with prophethood, his life divides into the Makkan period (13 years) and the Madinan period (10 years), each with its own stages. Before the mission Allah protected and prepared him: through his noble lineage and legitimate birth; the guardianship of Abd al-Muttalib then Abu Talib (both leaders of Quraysh); his famed truthfulness and honesty as a youth; keeping his heart pure so he never worshipped an idol or swore by other than Allah; and the incident of the opening of his chest.

The beginning of the mission in the Cave of Hira

As he approached forty, seclusion was made dear to him. He would take provisions to the Cave of Hira (about two miles from Makkah) and stay for the month of Ramadan in worship and reflection — this was three years before his messengership.

Jibreel and the revelation. At forty, Jibreel came with the revelation, saying “Read!” He ﷺ said: «I am not a reader.» Jibreel embraced and squeezed him three times, then said “Read!”, and the words were revealed: “Recite in the name of your Lord who created…” (al-Alaq 96:1–5) (al-Bukhari & Muslim).

Hadith

«ما أنا بقارئٍ» — بدء الوحي (عائشة؛ متفق عليه)

Qur’an

﴿اقْرَأْ بِاسْمِ رَبِّكَ الَّذِي خَلَقَ ۝ خَلَقَ الْإِنسَانَ مِنْ عَلَقٍ ۝ اقْرَأْ وَرَبُّكَ الْأَكْرَمُ ۝ الَّذِي عَلَّمَ بِالْقَلَمِ ۝ عَلَّمَ الْإِنسَانَ مَا لَمْ يَعْلَمْ﴾ — العلق ١–٥

The pause and resumption of revelation. (Benefit: the report that the Prophet ﷺ repeatedly went to throw himself off mountains during the pause is one of az-Zuhri’s balaghat with an incomplete isnad — not to be attributed to the Prophet ﷺ.) Ibn Hajar: the pause was to let his fear settle and make him long for the revelation. He ﷺ described its return: he saw the angel who had come to him at Hira, seated on a chair between heaven and earth; alarmed, he went to Khadijah saying “Cover me!”, and the words were revealed: “O you who covers himself, Arise and warn…” (al-Muddaththir 74:1–5). This was before prayer was enjoined.

Qur’an

﴿يَا أَيُّهَا الْمُدَّثِّرُ ۝ قُمْ فَأَنذِرْ ۝ وَرَبَّكَ فَكَبِّرْ ۝ وَثِيَابَكَ فَطَهِّرْ ۝ وَالرُّجْزَ فَاهْجُرْ﴾ — المدّثر ١–٥

These verses marked two responsibilities: conveying and warning ({Arise and warn}), and complying with Allah’s commands himself ({And your Lord glorify}, {your clothing purify}).

Types of revelation (wahy) — six categories

1. True dreams — the beginning of revelation for him.
2. What the angel cast into his heart unseen — «The Holy Spirit (Jibreel) breathed into my heart that no soul will die until it has received its provision in full; so fear Allah and be moderate in seeking provision, and do not let its slow coming make you seek it by disobeying Allah, for what is with Allah is attained only by obeying Him» (al-Bayhaqi; sahih per al-Albani).
3. The angel appearing as a man and speaking to him (the Sahabah sometimes saw him too, e.g. the Jibreel hadith).
4. Like the ringing of a bell — the hardest form; his forehead would drip with sweat on a cold day.
5. Seeing the angel in his true form — this happened twice (Surat an-Najm).
6. What Allah revealed above the heavens on the night of the Miraj (the prayers, etc.).

The stages of the call (da’wah)

First stage: calling people secretly

After the verses of al-Muddaththir, he ﷺ called the closest people to him. The first Muslims were: Khadijah (his wife); Abu Bakr as-Siddeeq (his friend); Zayd ibn Harithah (his freed slave); and Ali ibn Abi Talib (his young cousin). In total about 130 men and women were among the first Muslims. He made Dar al-Arqam (the house of al-Arqam ibn Abi’l-Arqam al-Makhzumi) a secret centre for the call.

The prescription of prayer. One of the first rulings revealed was the command to pray; at this time the revelation was explaining Tawhid and urging purification of the soul and noble character.

Second stage: calling people openly

Allah revealed: “Then declare what you are commanded and turn away from the polytheists” (al-Hijr 15:94).

Qur’an

﴿فَاصْدَعْ بِمَا تُؤْمَرُ وَأَعْرِضْ عَنِ الْمُشْرِكِينَ﴾ — الحجر ٩٤

So he ﷺ called people openly, reciting the Qur’an in the gatherings of the polytheists and telling them what the previous Messengers had said: “O my people, worship Allah; you have no deity other than Him” (al-A’raf 7:59), and praying openly in the courtyard of the Ka’bah.

Qur’an

﴿يَا قَوْمِ اعْبُدُوا اللَّهَ مَا لَكُم مِّنْ إِلَٰهٍ غَيْرُهُ﴾ — الأعراف ٥٩

The polytheists’ persecution. Ibn Mas’ud (al-Bukhari & Muslim): while the Prophet ﷺ prayed at the Ka’bah, Abu Jahl and his companions had the entrails of a slaughtered she-camel placed on his back as he prostrated; Fatimah came and removed it. He then raised his head and said «O Allah, punish Quraysh» three times.

Then the Messenger ﷺ took two wise steps: (1) he chose Dar al-Arqam as a centre where the Muslims could gather in secret; and (2) the two migrations to Abyssinia.

The two migrations to Abyssinia (Ethiopia)

When the persecution grew severe, the Prophet ﷺ said: «In the land of Abyssinia is a king in whose presence no one is wronged; go to his land until Allah grants you relief and a way out» (Ibn Ishaq, from Umm Salamah).

Hadith

«إنَّ بأرضِ الحبشةِ مَلِكًا لا يُظلَمُ عندَه أحدٌ، فالحَقوا ببلادِه حتى يجعلَ اللهُ لكم فرَجًا ومخرَجًا مما أنتم فيه» (السيرة؛ عن أم سلمة)

• First migration (year 5 of the mission): eleven men and four women; the first were Uthman ibn Affan and his wife Ruqayyah (the Prophet’s daughter).
• Second migration: eighty-odd men and their families. The first migrants had returned on hearing (falsely) that Quraysh had accepted Islam, then migrated again. Quraysh sent Amr ibn al-As and Abdullah ibn Abi Rabee’ah with gifts to bribe the Negus to extradite them — to no avail; the Negus became Muslim, refused, and granted the Muslims safety.
• In this harsh atmosphere, Hamzah ibn Abd al-Muttalib and Umar ibn al-Khattab entered Islam, strengthening the Muslims, and Quraysh began to negotiate.

The unjust boycott and the ravine of Abu Talib

The polytheists made a covenant to boycott Banu Hashim and Banu’l-Muttalib — no intermarriage, trade, or mixing — until they handed over the Prophet ﷺ to be killed; the document was hung inside the Ka’bah. The Muslims were besieged in the ravine (sh’ib) of Abu Talib, food ran out, and they were reduced to eating leaves and leather for about three years. The boycott was then annulled in Muharram of the tenth year of prophethood, when Quraysh were divided over it.

The Year of Sorrow — the tenth year of prophethood

(Benefit: the name “Year of Sorrow” is commonly used, but it is not proven that the Prophet ﷺ, the Companions, or the Tabieen referred to that year by this name.)

• The death of Abu Talib (Rajab of the tenth year, about six months after leaving the ravine).
• The death of Khadijah (about two months — or three days — after Abu Talib). At that time the Messenger ﷺ was about fifty.

The third stage: calling people beyond Makkah

The journey to Taif (Shawwal, year 10)

He ﷺ set out on foot for Taif (about sixty miles), accompanied by his freed slave Zayd ibn Harithah. The leaders of Thaqif rejected him harshly and set their fools and slaves to insult and stone him until his feet bled and he fainted. Jibreel came with the angel of the mountains, who offered to crush the town between the two mountains, but he ﷺ said: «Rather I hope Allah will bring forth from their loins those who will worship Allah alone, associating nothing with Him» (agreed upon).

Hadith

«بل أرجو أن يُخرِجَ اللهُ من أصلابِهم من يعبُدُ اللهَ وحدَه لا يُشرِكُ به شيئًا» (عائشة؛ متفق عليه)

Presenting Islam to the tribes. Back in Makkah, he continued to present Islam to the tribes and individuals during the Hajj season, now asking them for refuge, support and protection so he could convey the message.

The Isra and Miraj (Night Journey and Ascent)

Ibn al-Qayyim summarised it: the Messenger ﷺ was taken by night, physically, from al-Masjid al-Haram to Bayt al-Maqdis on al-Buraq, accompanied by Jibreel; he led the Prophets in prayer there. Then he was taken up through the heavens to the Most High, Who revealed to His slave what He revealed and enjoined fifty prayers; he asked for a reduction — on Musa’s advice — until they were five, then a caller called out: “I have decreed My obligation and lightened the burden for My slaves.” (He ﷺ married Aisha in Shawwal of the eleventh year of prophethood; the marriage was consummated in Madinah in year 1 AH.)

The pledges of al-Aqabah

• Six men of Yathrib (from al-Khazraj) became Muslim at the Hajj season and promised to convey his message.
• The first pledge of al-Aqabah (year 12): twelve men. Ubadah ibn as-Samit (al-Bukhari & Muslim): the Messenger ﷺ said: «Pledge to me not to associate anything with Allah, not to steal, not to commit fornication, not to kill your children, not to bring a slander you have fabricated, and not to disobey me in what is right. Whoever fulfils it, his reward is with Allah; whoever falls into any of it and is punished for it in this world, it is an expiation; and whoever Allah conceals, it is up to Allah — if He wills He pardons, and if He wills He punishes.»

Hadith

«بايِعوني على أن لا تُشرِكوا باللهِ شيئًا، ولا تَسرِقوا، ولا تَزنوا، ولا تَقتُلوا أولادَكم، ولا تأتوا بِبُهتانٍ تَفترونَه بينَ أيديكم وأرجُلِكم، ولا تَعصوني في مَعروفٍ؛ فمَن وفَّى منكم فأجرُه على اللهِ، ومَن أصابَ من ذلك شيئًا فعُوقِبَ به في الدنيا فهو كفَّارةٌ له، ومَن أصابَ من ذلك شيئًا ثم سترَه اللهُ فهو إلى اللهِ، إن شاءَ عفا عنه وإن شاءَ عاقبَه» (عبادة بن الصامت؛ متفق عليه)

He ﷺ sent Mus’ab ibn Umayr as the first envoy and teacher to Yathrib (known as al-Muqri, the reciter), until there was no house of the Ansar without Muslim men and women.

• The second pledge of al-Aqabah (year 13): seventy-odd men (and two women). The terms (Jabir): «to hear and obey in ease and hardship, to spend in hardship and ease, to enjoin good and forbid evil, to speak for Allah fearing no critic’s blame, and to support and protect me as you protect yourselves — and Paradise is yours.»

Dar an-Nadwah and the conspiracy to kill the Prophet ﷺ

Quraysh gathered at Dar an-Nadwah; Iblees appeared as a respectable elder from Najd. Abu Jahl’s plan: a strong young man from each clan would strike the Prophet ﷺ together, so the blood-guilt would be shared among all the clans and Banu Abd Manaf could not fight everyone.

The Hijrah (year 14 of prophethood / year 1 AH)

The Prophet ﷺ went to Abu Bakr at midday to plan; «I have been given permission to leave.» Abu Bakr wept with joy and prepared two mounts. Ali slept in the Prophet’s bed. He ﷺ left, scattering dust over the plotters as Allah took away their sight, reciting: “And We have put before them a barrier and behind them a barrier and covered them, so they do not see” (Ya-Seen 36:9).

Qur’an

﴿وَجَعَلْنَا مِن بَيْنِ أَيْدِيهِمْ سَدًّا وَمِنْ خَلْفِهِمْ سَدًّا فَأَغْشَيْنَاهُمْ فَهُمْ لَا يُبْصِرُونَ﴾ — يس ٩

They hid in the Cave of Thawr (south, towards Yemen) for three nights; Abdullah ibn Abi Bakr brought news, Aamir ibn Fuhayrah and Asma helped. Quraysh offered a reward of a hundred camels for each man. With the guide Abdullah ibn Uraiqit, they took the coastal road.

Entry to Madinah. The Muslims watched daily at the Harrah; a Jew announced his arrival, and they welcomed him with takbeer of joy. Revelation was coming down: “then indeed Allah is his protector, and Gabriel and the righteous of the believers, and the angels moreover are his assistants” (at-Tahrim 66:4).

Qur’an

﴿فَإِنَّ اللَّهَ هُوَ مَوْلَاهُ وَجِبْرِيلُ وَصَالِحُ الْمُؤْمِنِينَ ۖ وَالْمَلَائِكَةُ بَعْدَ ذَٰلِكَ ظَهِيرٌ﴾ — التحريم ٤

From that day Yathrib became known as al-Madinah. His she-camel knelt at the site of the future mosque; he stayed with Abu Ayyub al-Ansari, the nearest of his maternal relatives of Banu’n-Najjar (al-Bukhari).

Unit 5 — The Prophet ﷺ in Madinah (The Madinan Period)

On arrival in Madinah

• Building the Prophet’s Mosque (al-Masjid an-Nabawi) — the first thing he did, at the site where his she-camel knelt; he bought the land from two orphans and carried bricks and stones himself, saying: «O Allah, there is no life but the life of the Hereafter, so forgive the Ansar and the Muhajirah» (agreed upon).

Hadith

«اللهمَّ لا عَيشَ إلا عَيشُ الآخِرَةِ، فاغفِرْ للأنصارِ والمُهاجِرَةِ» (متفق عليه)

• The bond of brotherhood between the Muhajireen and Ansar — mutual support, even inheritance, until Allah revealed: “But those of blood relationship are more entitled to inheritance” (al-Anfal 8:75), which restored inheritance to blood relatives.

Qur’an

﴿وَأُولُو الْأَرْحَامِ بَعْضُهُمْ أَوْلَىٰ بِبَعْضٍ فِي كِتَابِ اللَّهِ﴾ — الأنفال ٧٥

• The covenant of Islamic unity — eliminating the grudges of Jahiliyyah and creating an inclusive Islamic unity.

Permission to fight

Quraysh continued to threaten the Muslims and the people of Madinah. Then permission to fight was revealed: “Permission to fight has been given to those who are being fought, because they were wronged; and indeed Allah is competent to give them victory” (al-Hajj 22:39), and “those who, if We give them authority in the land, establish prayer and give zakah and enjoin what is right and forbid what is wrong” (al-Hajj 22:41).

Qur’an

﴿أُذِنَ لِلَّذِينَ يُقَاتَلُونَ بِأَنَّهُمْ ظُلِمُوا ۚ وَإِنَّ اللَّهَ عَلَىٰ نَصْرِهِمْ لَقَدِيرٌ﴾ — الحج ٣٩ ۝ ﴿الَّذِينَ إِن مَّكَّنَّاهُمْ فِي الْأَرْضِ أَقَامُوا الصَّلَاةَ وَآتَوُا الزَّكَاةَ وَأَمَرُوا بِالْمَعْرُوفِ وَنَهَوْا عَنِ الْمُنكَرِ﴾ — الحج ٤١

Expeditions and campaigns before Badr

Several took place in 1–2 AH: the sariyyahs of Hamzah, Ubaydah ibn al-Harith, and Sa’d ibn Abi Waqqas; and the ghazwahs of al-Abwa (his first, standard borne by Hamzah), Buwat, and al-Ushayrah. In the sariyyah of Abdullah ibn Jahsh (twelve Muhajireen), Amr ibn al-Hadrami was killed — the first enemy killed in Islam — and the first captives were taken. Aims: reconnaissance of the roads, treaties with nearby tribes, showing the Muslims’ strength, and pressuring Quraysh’s trade. After this expedition, fighting was made obligatory : “Fight in the way of Allah those who fight you but do not transgress. Indeed, Allah does not like transgressors” (al-Baqarah 2:190).

Qur’an

﴿وَقَاتِلُوا فِي سَبِيلِ اللَّهِ الَّذِينَ يُقَاتِلُونَكُمْ وَلَا تَعْتَدُوا ۚ إِنَّ اللَّهَ لَا يُحِبُّ الْمُعْتَدِينَ﴾ — البقرة ١٩٠

The Battle of Badr (17 Ramadan, 2 AH)

The Messenger ﷺ set out to intercept Abu Sufyan’s Quraysh caravan returning from Syria. The Muslims were 313 men, with 2 horses and 70 camels; Abdullah ibn Umm Maktum was left over Madinah. Abu Sufyan diverted the caravan, but Abu Jahl insisted on marching to Badr; Quraysh gathered about 950 men. Allah revealed: “when Allah promised you one of the two groups, that it would be yours…” (al-Anfal 8:7).

Qur’an

﴿وَإِذْ يَعِدُكُمُ اللَّهُ إِحْدَى الطَّائِفَتَيْنِ أَنَّهَا لَكُمْ وَتَوَدُّونَ أَنَّ غَيْرَ ذَاتِ الشَّوْكَةِ تَكُونُ لَكُمْ﴾ — الأنفال ٧

Al-Miqdad ibn al-Aswad pledged loyalty, contrasting with the Children of Israel who told Musa “go, you and your Lord, and fight” (al-Ma’idah 5:24). In the hut, the Prophet ﷺ implored: «O Allah, fulfil what You promised me; O Allah, if this band of Muslims is destroyed today, You will not be worshipped on earth» (Umar; Muslim).

Hadith

«اللهمَّ أنجِزْ لي ما وعَدتَني، اللهمَّ إن تُهلِكْ هذه العِصابةَ من أهلِ الإسلامِ لا تُعبَدْ في الأرضِ» (عمر بن الخطاب؛ مسلم)

In single combat, Hamzah, Ali, and Ubaydah ibn al-Harith faced Utbah, Shaybah, and al-Walid. Allah reinforced the Muslims with angels: “your Lord will reinforce you with five thousand angels having marks of distinction” (Aal Imran 3:125).

Qur’an

﴿بَلَىٰ ۚ إِن تَصْبِرُوا وَتَتَّقُوا وَيَأْتُوكُم مِّن فَوْرِهِمْ هَٰذَا يُمْدِدْكُمْ رَبُّكُم بِخَمْسَةِ آلَافٍ مِّنَ الْمَلَائِكَةِ مُسَوِّمِينَ﴾ — آل عمران ١٢٥

The result was a decisive victory: 70 polytheists killed, 70 captured; 14 Muslim martyrs. Captives were ransomed (4,000 dirhams, or teaching ten children to read and write).

The Battle of Uhud (3 AH)

Quraysh sought revenge for Badr with about 3,000 men. On the younger men’s advice, the Prophet ﷺ went out to meet them with 1,000; the hypocrite Abdullah ibn Ubayy withdrew a third of the army, leaving 700. The Prophet ﷺ placed fifty archers on the hill and ordered them not to leave. Hamzah fought heroically but was killed by Wahshi (slave of Jubayr ibn Mut’im). When the archers left their post to collect booty, Khalid ibn al-Walid attacked from the rear; the Muslims were routed and a rumour spread that the Prophet ﷺ had been killed. Thirty Companions rallied to him. It was a lesson in the consequences of disobeying the Messenger ﷺ.

The Battle of al-Khandaq (the Trench) / al-Ahzab (the Confederates) (5 AH, Shawwal)

The Jews of Banu’n-Nadeer incited Quraysh and Ghatafan (tempting Ghatafan with Khaybar’s date crop), assembling a confederate army of about 10,000 under Abu Sufyan. Salman al-Farisi advised digging a trench around Madinah. At a great rock, the Prophet ﷺ said «Bismillah» and struck it; flashes of light appeared, and he foretold the conquest of the palaces of Syria, then Persia, then Yemen — «Allahu akbar!». Huyayy ibn Akhtab persuaded Banu Qurayzah to break their treaty. Finally Allah sent a fierce wind that overturned the confederates’ tents and scattered them. It was a battle of nerves rather than a field battle; Allah revealed: “Among the believers are men true to what they promised Allah… And Allah repelled those who disbelieved, in their rage… And He brought down those who supported them among the People of the Scripture from their fortresses…” (al-Ahzab 33:23–25).

Qur’an

﴿مِّنَ الْمُؤْمِنِينَ رِجَالٌ صَدَقُوا مَا عَاهَدُوا اللَّهَ عَلَيْهِ ۖ فَمِنْهُم مَّن قَضَىٰ نَحْبَهُ وَمِنْهُم مَّن يَنتَظِرُ ۖ وَمَا بَدَّلُوا تَبْدِيلًا﴾ — الأحزاب ٢٣

The Treaty of al-Hudaybiyyah (Dhu’l-Qadah, 6 AH)

After a dream of entering al-Masjid al-Haram, the Prophet ﷺ set out for umrah with 1,400 Muslims; they entered ihram at Dhu’l-Hulayfah. When Quraysh moved to bar the way, Abu Bakr advised proceeding, and he ﷺ said: «Proceed in the name of Allah.»

Bay’at ar-Ridwan. When a rumour spread that Uthman (sent to Quraysh) had been killed, the Prophet ﷺ called the Muslims to pledge not to flee, and they pledged beneath the tree. Allah revealed: “Certainly was Allah pleased with the believers when they pledged allegiance to you under the tree…” (al-Fath 48:18).

Qur’an

﴿لَّقَدْ رَضِيَ اللَّهُ عَنِ الْمُؤْمِنِينَ إِذْ يُبَايِعُونَكَ تَحْتَ الشَّجَرَةِ فَعَلِمَ مَا فِي قُلُوبِهِمْ فَأَنزَلَ السَّكِينَةَ عَلَيْهِمْ وَأَثَابَهُمْ فَتْحًا قَرِيبًا﴾ — الفتح ١٨

Suhayl ibn Amr negotiated the treaty. Terms: a truce; the Muslims return this year and perform umrah the next; the Prophet ﷺ returns anyone who comes to him as a Muslim from Quraysh without their family, but Quraysh do not return those who come to them as apostates. Umar objected, and the Prophet ﷺ said: «I am the Messenger of Allah, and Allah will never forsake me.» The Muslims slaughtered their animals, exited ihram, and returned after twenty days.

The campaign of Khaybar (7 AH)

Against the hostile Jews of Khaybar (eight fortresses); the Prophet ﷺ set out with 1,600 men. After fierce fighting the Jews sued for peace, sparing their lives, and Khaybar was won. Among the booty were pages of the Torah, which the Muslims returned to the Jews — unlike the Romans who burned the Christians’ books at Jerusalem and the Tatars who burned books in Baghdad.

Umrat al-Qada (Dhu’l-Qadah, 7 AH): 2,000 men, per the terms of al-Hudaybiyyah. Allah revealed: “Certainly has Allah showed to His Messenger the vision in truth…” (al-Fath 48:27).

Qur’an

﴿لَّقَدْ صَدَقَ اللَّهُ رَسُولَهُ الرُّؤْيَا بِالْحَقِّ ۖ لَتَدْخُلُنَّ الْمَسْجِدَ الْحَرَامَ إِن شَاءَ اللَّهُ آمِنِينَ مُحَلِّقِينَ رُءُوسَكُمْ وَمُقَصِّرِينَ لَا تَخَافُونَ﴾ — الفتح ٢٧

The campaign of Mu’tah (Jumada al-Ula, 8 AH)

To avenge al-Harith ibn Umayr (an envoy killed), the Prophet ﷺ sent an army of 3,000, appointing commanders in succession: «Your commander is Zayd ibn Harithah; if Zayd is killed, then Ja’far ibn Abi Talib; if Ja’far is killed, then Abdullah ibn Rawahah» (Abu Qatadah; isnad jayyid).

Hadith

«أميرُكم زيدُ بنُ حارثةَ، فإن أُصيبَ زيدٌ فجَعفرُ بنُ أبي طالبٍ، فإن أُصيبَ جعفرٌ فعبدُ اللهِ بنُ رواحةَ» (أبو قتادة؛ إسناده جيد)

All three were martyred — Ja’far became Dhu’l-Janahayn (He of the Two Wings). Khalid ibn al-Walid then took the banner and made a strategic withdrawal that saved the army.

The Conquest of Makkah (Ramadan, 8 AH)

After Banu Bakr (allies of Quraysh) attacked Khuza’ah (allies of the Muslims), breaking the treaty, the Prophet ﷺ marched with about 10,000. At Marr az-Zahran, Abu Sufyan came and became Muslim. The Prophet ﷺ granted a general amnesty: «Whoever enters the house of Abu Sufyan is safe; whoever shuts his door is safe; and whoever enters the mosque is safe» (Ibn Abbas; sahih per al-Albani).

Hadith

«من دخلَ دارَ أبي سُفيانَ فهو آمِنٌ، ومن أغلقَ عليه بابَه فهو آمِنٌ، ومن دخلَ المسجدَ فهو آمِنٌ» (ابن عباس؛ صححه الألباني)

Destruction of the idols. The Prophet ﷺ struck the idols around the Ka’bah with his bow, reciting: “And say: Truth has come, and falsehood has departed. Indeed, falsehood is ever bound to depart” (al-Isra 17:81). Amr ibn al-As destroyed Suwa (of Hudhayl), Sa’d ibn Zayd destroyed Manat, and Khalid destroyed al-Uzza. The banner of Tawhid was raised in Makkah and its environs.

Qur’an

﴿وَقُلْ جَاءَ الْحَقُّ وَزَهَقَ الْبَاطِلُ ۚ إِنَّ الْبَاطِلَ كَانَ زَهُوقًا﴾ — الإسراء ٨١

The Battle of Hunayn (Shawwal, 8 AH)

Hawazin and Thaqif (about 20,000 under Malik ibn Awf) moved against the Muslims (12,000), who felt proud of their numbers. Ambushed in Wadi Hunayn, many fled, but the Prophet ﷺ stood firm calling them, and al-Abbas summoned the Ansar and Muhajireen. He ﷺ threw pebbles at the enemy’s faces and said: «They are defeated, by the Lord of Muhammad» (Muslim). The lesson: victory does not come from large numbers.

The campaign of Tabuk (Rajab, 9 AH) — the campaign of hardship

Against a Byzantine threat in Syria, the Prophet ﷺ urged generous spending: Uthman gave 10,000 dinars, 900 camels and 100 horses; Abu Bakr gave all his wealth; Abd ar-Rahman ibn Awf gave 40,000 dinars; and the women gave their jewellery. About 30,000 marched to Tabuk through great hardship (water shortage), found the Byzantines had withdrawn, stayed about twenty days, and returned.

The year of delegations (9 AH)

Delegations (about sixty) came to Madinah to declare Islam and pledge allegiance. Abu Bakr led the Hajj that year; Surat Bara’ah (at-Tawbah) was revealed, and Ali was sent to proclaim: «No disbeliever will enter Paradise; no polytheist will perform Hajj after this year; and none shall circumambulate the Ka’bah naked…»

The Farewell Pilgrimage (Hajjat al-Wada, 10 AH)

The Prophet ﷺ performed Hajj joined with umrah (qiran), teaching the rites: tawaf al-qudum, sa’i, the standing at Arafah with a combined Zuhr and Asr, Muzdalifah, stoning the Jamarat over the days of tashreeq, the sacrifice, and tawaf al-ifadah. It is called the Farewell Pilgrimage because he did not perform Hajj again. His umrahs were four (all in Dhu’l-Qadah except the one with his Hajj): al-Hudaybiyyah, al-Qada, al-Ji’ranah, and with his Hajj (Anas; as-Sahihayn). After returning, he prepared the army of Usamah ibn Zayd for Syria (about 3,000), but it was delayed by his final illness.

The death of the Messenger ﷺ (12 Rabi’ al-Awwal, 11 AH)

He ﷺ fell ill about three months after the Farewell Pilgrimage (beginning in Maymunah’s house); it is soundly narrated (al-Bukhari) that the root was the poisoned mutton at Khaybar. He was nursed in Aisha’s house, where she recited the Mu’awwidhatayn over him. Unable to lead the prayer, he instructed Abu Bakr to lead the people — a sign of his succession.

He ﷺ said: «Allah gave a slave the choice between the adornment of this world and what is with Him, and he chose what is with Him» — and Abu Bakr, understanding, wept. Near death, he dipped his hand in water and wiped his face, saying: «Laa ilaaha illa Allah; indeed death has agonies.»

Hadith

«لا إلهَ إلا اللهُ، إنَّ للموتِ سَكَراتٍ» (عائشة؛ البخاري)

His voice grew faint saying «…with those upon whom You have bestowed favour» and «O Allah, the highest companion (ar-Rafeeq al-A’la)» — and Aisha realised he had chosen the highest company.

Hadith

«اللهمَّ الرَّفيقَ الأعلى» (عائشة؛ متفق عليه)

He passed away in the late morning of Monday, 12 Rabi’ al-Awwal, 11 AH, his head on Aisha’s chest; the last thing he tasted was the siwak she had softened. Abu Bakr kissed his face, then addressed the people: «Whoever worshipped Muhammad — Muhammad has died; whoever worshipped Allah — Allah is Ever-Living and never dies», and recited: “Muhammad is not but a messenger; other messengers have passed on before him. So if he was to die or be killed, would you turn back on your heels?…” (Aal Imran 3:144). Umar was overcome, as if he had never heard the verse before.

Qur’an

﴿وَمَا مُحَمَّدٌ إِلَّا رَسُولٌ قَدْ خَلَتْ مِن قَبْلِهِ الرُّسُلُ ۚ أَفَإِن مَّاتَ أَوْ قُتِلَ انقَلَبْتُمْ عَلَىٰ أَعْقَابِكُمْ ۚ وَمَن يَنقَلِبْ عَلَىٰ عَقِبَيْهِ فَلَن يَضُرَّ اللَّهَ شَيْئًا ۗ وَسَيَجْزِي اللَّهُ الشَّاكِرِينَ﴾ — آل عمران ١٤٤

The virtue of sending blessings (salawat) upon the Prophet ﷺ

Muslim narrated (Abdullah ibn Amr ibn al-As) that the Messenger ﷺ said: «Whoever sends blessings upon me once, Allah will send blessings upon him tenfold.»

Hadith

«من صلَّى عليَّ صلاةً صلَّى اللهُ عليه بها عشرًا» (عبد الله بن عمرو بن العاص؛ مسلم)

The form taught in the hadith (al-Bukhari): «O Allah, send blessings upon Muhammad and upon the family of Muhammad, as You sent blessings upon Ibrahim and upon the family of Ibrahim; indeed You are Praiseworthy, Glorious. O Allah, bless Muhammad and the family of Muhammad, as You blessed Ibrahim and the family of Ibrahim; indeed You are Praiseworthy, Glorious.»

Hadith

«اللهمَّ صلِّ على محمدٍ وعلى آلِ محمدٍ، كما صلَّيتَ على إبراهيمَ وعلى آلِ إبراهيمَ، إنَّكَ حميدٌ مجيدٌ؛ اللهمَّ بارِكْ على محمدٍ وعلى آلِ محمدٍ، كما بارَكتَ على إبراهيمَ وعلى آلِ إبراهيمَ، إنَّكَ حميدٌ مجيدٌ» (كعب بن عجرة؛ متفق عليه)

His life ﷺ ended, but his message did not: it will endure until the Day of Judgement, and goodness will remain in his ummah. May Allah send blessings and peace upon His Prophet, the truthful and honest one. Praise be to Allah, Lord of the worlds.

End of Level 1 — Seerah (The Prophet’s Biography).